7 Choline Benefits You Ought to Know

The benefits of choline play a crucial role in various bodily functions. It is an essential nutrient. Although our body makes choline, some people are deficient due to a lack of choline in their diet, resulting in liver, muscle, and neurological issues.

This article will help you to discover all the choline benefits, what the nutrient is about, the best sources and frequently asked questions.

Key Takeaways:

• Choline supports fertility, pregnancy, lactation, brain, heart, liver, and gut health.
• Men should get 550 and women 425 mg of choline daily.
• Liver, red meat, eggs, and salmon are high in choline.
• Only individuals with certain conditions should supplement.

Choline | Foods | Daily Intake | Deficiency | Benefits | FAQ

What is Choline?

Choline is an essential nutrient often grouped with water-soluble B vitamins¹ due to their similarities. Like B vitamins, choline is a critical component of cell membranes and is crucial for vital bodily functions.

Although naturally produced by the liver², the production does not meet the body’s needs, necessitating dietary intake or supplementation.

Choline is a derivative of the amino acid serine but not a protein or amino acid.

What Foods Are High in Choline?

Liver, red meat, and egg yolks are the richest sources of choline.

But you do not have to start a carnivore diet to get choline. Here are some rich sources of choline² and how much you get per serving, including plant-based options:

• Beef liver – 356 mg per serving
• Chicken liver – 219 mg per serving
• Salmon – 187 mg per serving
• Egg – 147 mg per serving
• Chicken breast – 72 mg per serving
• Soybeans – 107 mg per serving
• Cod – 71 mg per serving
• Potatoes – 57 mg per serving
• Wheat germ – 51 mg per serving
• Kidney beans – 45 mg per serving
• Tilapia – 42.5 mg per serving
• Milk – 43 mg per serving
• Yogurt – 38 mg per serving
• Broccoli – 31 mg per serving
• Shitake mushrooms – 27 mg per serving

How Much Choline Per Day?

Adult men should aim for 550 mg/day, whereas adult women should target 425 mg/day.³

The recommended daily choline intake varies based on age, gender, and life stage.

Higher doses are advised due to increased demands, such as pregnancy and lactation.

Here’s a summary of how much choline you should take based on your age by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine:

Age	Male	Females	Pregnant	Lactating
Birth to 6 months	125 mg/day
7–12 months	150 mg/day
1–3 years	200 mg/day
4–8 years	250 mg/day
9–13 years	375 mg/day
14–18 years	550 mg/day	400 mg/day	450 mg/day	550 mg/day
19+ years	550 mg/day	425 mg/day	450 mg/day	550 mg/day

What Is Choline Deficiency?

Choline deficiency is when you are not getting enough choline for a prolonged period. Some people may manifest symptoms early on, while others at a later stage.

Symptoms may include liver dysfunction⁴, muscle damage⁵, and cognitive impairment⁶.

Some groups of people, including men and postmenopausal women, show symptoms more frequently than premenopausal women and other age groups².

Who Needs Choline Supplements?

Pregnant and lactating women, athletes, individuals with liver conditions, and those with specific genetic conditions affecting choline metabolism may benefit from choline supplementation. ⁷

However, consulting a healthcare professional before initiating any supplementation regimen is crucial.

What Are the Benefits of Choline?

Here are seven evidence-based health benefits of choline.

1. Supports Brain Health

Choline is a fundamental component of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in cognitive functions, including memory, learning, and muscle control.

Adequate choline intake is essential for synthesizing and releasing acetylcholine and dopamine⁸.

Research has shown that choline supplementation can enhance cognitive performance, particularly in tasks related to memory and attention, especially in the first 1000 days of life⁹.

Moreover, choline may protect against age-related cognitive decline, potentially reducing the risk of conditions like Alzheimer’s disease¹⁰.

2. Supports Heart Health

Choline is involved in the metabolism of homocysteine¹¹, an amino acid associated with increased cardiovascular risk when present at elevated levels.

It helps convert homocysteine into a non-toxic substance, methionine¹², used for various essential processes in the body.

Choline also helps in regulating blood pressure levels.

In a study¹³, choline intake had an inverse association with hypertension in both sexes. However, very high choline levels may also have a negative effect¹⁴ on your cardiovascular health, so keeping things in moderation is always the key.

3. Boosts Liver Health

Choline is a vital component of phosphatidylcholine¹⁵, a phospholipid critical for the structural integrity of cell membranes, especially in the liver. Additionally, choline supports the transport and metabolism of fats in the liver, preventing the accumulation of triglycerides and the development of fatty liver disease¹⁶.

In cases of choline deficiency, fat can build up in the liver, potentially leading to more severe liver conditions.

4. Improves Fertility

Choline plays a crucial role in reproductive health, particularly follicular maturation¹⁷ among females and healthy sperm motility¹⁸ among men.

Although this benefit is due to more clinical studies, several animal studies support the claims.

5. Supports Healthy Pregnancy and Lactation

Choline’s importance during pregnancy extends beyond neural development. Studies¹⁹ have suggested maternal choline intake can impact the child’s cognitive function and memory performance, especially in the first two years⁹.

Research²⁰ on humans and animals has demonstrated that adding more choline to the mother’s diet enhances many pregnancy outcomes and guards against metabolic and neurological damage.

A supporting study suggests²¹ that mothers with the lowest blood choline levels had a 2.4-fold increased risk of neural tube abnormalities compared to those with normal blood choline levels. Similarly, those with the highest blood choline levels show the lowest risk.

Choline is transferred from mother to infant through breast milk²². Adequate choline intake by lactating mothers ensures that their infants receive this essential nutrient, supporting optimal cognitive development and overall health.

6. Helps Prevent Cancer

Emerging research suggests that choline may play a role in preventing certain types of cancer, particularly breast cancer²³, and colorectal cancer²⁴.

Choline helps in DNA synthesis and repair and helps regulate cell growth and division. However, there are also some studies suggesting taking high levels of choline is detrimental among patients with prostate cancer²⁵.

These results warrant further investigation into choline’s potential as a preventive measure against cancer.

7. Boosts Gut Health

Few people know that choline offers various benefits for gut health.

Firstly, choline promotes beneficial intestinal bacteria^26, which are essential for digestion and the processing of nutrients.

Hence, adequate choline levels can help prevent intestinal problems such as leaky gut.

One study²⁷ showed that choline can inhibit the inflammatory response in the gut. Choline’s benefits for liver function also aid healthy digestion²⁸.

Furthermore, it acts as a precursor to the chemical messenger acetylcholine, which is the primary neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system.

When acetylcholine binds to specific receptors throughout the body, it helps the vagus nerve perform digestion, secretion, and gut motility functions²⁹.

Moreover, high-choline foods are associated with increased vagal tone³⁰, essential for proper digestion.

Frequently Asked Questions

References

¹Davoudi-Monfared, E. (2023). Choline. Encyclopedia of Toxicology (Fourth Edition), 27-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824315-2.00854-X

²Office of Dietary Supplements (2018) Dietary supplement fact sheet: choline. Available at: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Choline-HealthProfessional/ (Accessed: 10 November 2023)

³Patterson, K.K., Bhagwat, S.A., Williams, J., Howe, J.C., Holden, J.M. 2007. USDA database for the choline content of common foods, release two. NDL Home Page. Available: http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata (Accessed: 10 November 2023)

⁴Buchman, A. L., Dubin, M. D., Moukarzel, A. A., Jenden, D. J., Roch, M., Rice, K. M., Gornbein, J., & Ament, M. E. (1995). Choline deficiency: A cause of hepatic steatosis during parenteral nutrition that can be reversed with intravenous choline supplementation. Hepatology, 22(5), 1399-1403. https://doi.org/10.1016/0270-9139(95)90143-4

⁵Fischer, L. M., Kwock, L., Stewart, P. W., Lu, S., Stabler, S. P., Allen, R. H., & Zeisel, S. H. (2007). Sex and menopausal status influence human dietary requirements for the nutrient choline. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 85(5), 1275. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/85.5.1275

⁶Poly, C., Massaro, J. M., Seshadri, S., Wolf, P. A., Cho, E., Krall, E., Jacques, P. F., & Au, R. (2011). The relation of dietary choline to cognitive performance and white-matter hyperintensity in the Framingham Offspring Cohort. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 94(6), 1584-1591. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.110.008938

⁷Office of Dietary Supplements (2018) Dietary supplement fact sheet: choline. Available at: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Choline-Consumer/ (Accessed: 10 November 2023)

⁸Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Nutrition, Trauma, and the Brain; Erdman J, Oria M, Pillsbury L, editors. Nutrition and Traumatic Brain Injury: Improving Acute and Subacute Health Outcomes in Military Personnel. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2011. 9, Choline. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK209327/

⁹Derbyshire, E., & Obeid, R. (2020). Choline, Neurological Development and Brain Function: A Systematic Review Focusing on the First 1000 Days. Nutrients, 12(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061731

¹⁰Aguree, S., Zolnoori, M., Atwood, T. P., & Owora, A. (2023). Association between choline supplementation and Alzheimer’s disease risk: A systematic review protocol. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1242853

¹¹Olthof, Margreet & Brink, Elizabeth & Katan, Martijn & Verhoef, Petra. (2005). Choline supplemented as phosphatidylcholine decreases fasting and postmethionine-loading plasma homocysteine concentrations in healthy men. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 82. 111-7. 10.1093/ajcn.82.1.111.

¹²Miller A. L. (2003). The methionine-homocysteine cycle and its effects on cognitive diseases. Alternative medicine review : a journal of clinical therapeutic, 8(1), 7–19.

¹³Taesuwan, S., Vermeylen, F., Caudill, M. A., & Cassano, P. A. (2019). Relation of choline intake with blood pressure in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007-2010. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 109(3), 648–655. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy330

¹⁴Wilson Tang, W. H., Wang, Z., Levison, B. S., Koeth, R. A., Britt, E. B., Fu, X., Wu, Y., & Hazen, S. L. (2013). Intestinal Microbial Metabolism of Phosphatidylcholine and Cardiovascular Risk. The New England Journal of Medicine, 368(17), 1575. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1109400

¹⁵Li, Z., & Vance, D. E. (2008). Phosphatidylcholine and choline homeostasis. Journal of lipid research, 49(6), 1187–1194. https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.R700019-JLR200

¹⁶Mehedint, M. G., & Zeisel, S. H. (2013). Choline’s role in maintaining liver function: New evidence for epigenetic mechanisms. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care, 16(3), 339. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e3283600d46

¹⁷Zhan, X., Fletcher, L., Dingle, S., Baracuhy, E., Wang, B., Huber, L. A., & Li, J. (2021). Choline supplementation influences ovarian follicular development. Frontiers in bioscience (Landmark edition), 26(12), 1525–1536. https://doi.org/10.52586/5046

¹⁸Lazaros, L., Xita, N., Hatzi, E., Kaponis, A., Makrydimas, G., Takenaka, A., Sofikitis, N., Stefos, T., Zikopoulos, K., & Georgiou, I. (2012). Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase and choline dehydrogenase gene polymorphisms are associated with human sperm concentration. Asian Journal of Andrology, 14(5), 778-783. https://doi.org/10.1038/aja.2011.125

¹⁹Obeid, R., Derbyshire, E., & Schön, C. (2022). Association between Maternal Choline, Fetal Brain Development, and Child Neurocognition: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Human Studies. Advances in Nutrition, 13(6), 2445-2457. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmac082

²⁰Korsmo, H. W., Jiang, X., & Caudill, M. A. (2019). Choline: Exploring the Growing Science on Its Benefits for Moms and Babies. Nutrients, 11(8). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11081823

²¹Shaw, G. M., Finnell, R. H., Blom, H. J., Carmichael, S. L., Vollset, S. E., Yang, W., & Ueland, P. M. (2009). Choline and risk of neural tube defects in a folate-fortified population. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.), 20(5), 714–719. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181ac9fe7

²²Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Breastfeeding. https://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/breastfeeding-special-circumstances/diet-and-micronutrients/maternal-diet.html. (Accessed: 10 November 2023)

²³Xu, X., Gammon, M. D., Zeisel, S. H., Bradshaw, P. T., Wetmur, J. G., Teitelbaum, S. L., Neugut, A. I., Santella, R. M., & Chen, J. (2009). High intakes of choline and betaine reduce breast cancer mortality in a population-based study. The FASEB Journal, 23(11), 4022-4028. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.09-136507

²⁴Lu, S., Fang, J., Pan, Z., Zhong, X., Zheng, C., Chen, M., & Zhang, X. (2015). Choline and Betaine Intake and Colorectal Cancer Risk in Chinese Population: A Case-Control Study. PLOS ONE, 10(3), e0118661. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118661

²⁵Awwad, H. M., Geisel, J., & Obeid, R. (2012). The role of choline in prostate cancer. Clinical Biochemistry, 45(18), 1548-1553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2012.08.012

²⁶Tindall, A. M., Petersen, K. S., & Kris-Etherton, P. M. (2018). Dietary Patterns Affect the Gut Microbiome—The Link to Risk of Cardiometabolic Diseases. The Journal of Nutrition, 148(9), 1402-1407. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxy141

²⁷Treede, I., Braun, A., Sparla, R., Kühnel, M., Giese, T., Turner, J. R., Anes, E., Kulaksiz, H., Füllekrug, J., Stremmel, W., Griffiths, G., & Ehehalt, R. (2007). Anti-inflammatory Effects of Phosphatidylcholine. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 282(37), 27155-27164. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M704408200

²⁸Wallace, T. C., Blusztajn, J. K., Caudill, M. A., Klatt, K. C., Natker, E., Zeisel, S. H., & Zelman, K. M. (2018). Choline: The Underconsumed and Underappreciated Essential Nutrient. Nutrition Today, 53(6), 240-253. https://doi.org/10.1097/NT.0000000000000302

²⁹Jacobson, A., Yang, D., Vella, M., & Chiu, I. M. (2021). The intestinal neuro-immune axis: Crosstalk between neurons, immune cells, and microbes. Mucosal Immunology, 14(3), 555-565. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41385-020-00368-1

³⁰Young, H. A., & Benton, D. (2018). Heart-rate variability: A biomarker to study the influence of nutrition on physiological and psychological health? Behavioural Pharmacology, 29(2-), 140-151. https://doi.org/10.1097/FBP.0000000000000383

³¹Wilson Tang, W. H., Wang, Z., Levison, B. S., Koeth, R. A., Britt, E. B., Fu, X., Wu, Y., & Hazen, S. L. (2013). Intestinal Microbial Metabolism of Phosphatidylcholine and Cardiovascular Risk. The New England Journal of Medicine, 368(17), 1575. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1109400